Counsel and Responses to the Most Frequently Asked Questions on Cultic and Manipulative Activities (Part III)

Forms of Cultic and Manipulative Activity

1. The Field of Therapy

A significant portion of today’s marketplace of ideas consists of various methods, techniques, and products that belong to the broad and insufficiently regulated field of traditional or complementary medicine. Over the past several decades, however, numerous abuses associated with alternative therapeutic methods have been identified in developed European countries, resulting in serious consequences for the lives, health, and property of individuals. Consequently, many states have begun establishing professional criteria within the regulatory framework governing therapeutic practice in order to prevent the growing number of abuses affecting individuals suffering from illnesses of varying degrees of severity, as well as their families.

In the Republic of Serbia, the protection of human life and health is likewise regulated by law, with primary supervisory responsibility entrusted to the competent services of the Ministry of Health. The role of the Ministry of the Interior in this field is defined primarily as preventive and repressive action aimed at preventing or investigating criminal offences against human health (Criminal Code, Articles 246–259).

Under the legislation of the Republic of Serbia, traditional medicine encompasses verified and professionally recognized traditional, complementary, and alternative methods and procedures of diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation that have a beneficial effect on human health. The objective of the state is by no means to endanger those who practice traditional and complementary medicine professionally and in accordance with the law; on the contrary, the purpose of the present text is precisely to protect this profession from various forms of misuse. In the Republic of Serbia, only those methods and procedures of traditional medicine that do not endanger human health, do not discourage patients from using medically beneficial healthcare services, and are performed in accordance with recognized standards of traditional medicine are permitted. Such methods and procedures may be carried out only by healthcare professionals who hold a licence for the practice of traditional medicine issued by the Ministry of Health. Healthcare professionals who perform traditional medicine methods and procedures assume full professional, ethical, legal, and financial responsibility for their work. Healthcare institutions and private medical practices are required, in accordance with the law, to display their official name or registered business name together with information concerning the scope of their licensed activities, office hours, founder, and registered seat, as specified in the official decision confirming that the legal requirements for the provision of healthcare services have been fulfilled.

Having all of the above in mind, before accepting any offer involving an alternative therapeutic method or product, every prospective patient should seek clear answers to a number of essential questions in order to determine the following:

• The qualifications of the therapist:
  • Does the practitioner possess formal medical education (i.e., a university degree or an appropriate healthcare qualification, together with the required professional licensing examination, and, where applicable, the relevant specialist certification)?
  • Where and when was this education obtained, and can the stated qualifications be independently verified?
  • If the practitioner obtained his or her education abroad, has the diploma been officially recognized (nostrified) in the Republic of Serbia?
  • Is the practitioner registered with the appropriate professional Chamber?
  • Has the practitioner been granted, and where required renewed, authorization for independent professional practice?
• The legal status of the therapist or healthcare institution:
  • Is the practitioner or institution officially registered with the competent state authorities, and for which specific activities?
  • Does the institution employ an adequate number of qualified healthcare professionals with the required educational credentials and professional licensing examinations?
  • Does it possess appropriate premises, diagnostic, therapeutic, and other medical equipment necessary for the safe and modern provision of healthcare services?
• The validity and reliability of the therapeutic method or product:
  • Are there recognized professional certificates, licences, and credible independent confirmations demonstrating the safety of the proposed method or product?
  • For how long has the therapeutic method been practiced, and what evidence exists regarding its effectiveness?
• The proposed treatment procedure and its associated risks:
  • What are the nature, purpose, and expected benefits of the proposed therapy?
  • What is the expected duration of the treatment, and what are the possible consequences of accepting or declining the proposed medical intervention?
  • What are the nature and likelihood of potential risks?
  • What painful, adverse, or permanent side effects may occur?
  • What possible changes in the patient’s physical, mental, or psychosomatic condition may result from the proposed medical intervention?
  • What necessary lifestyle modifications may be required during or after treatment?
  • What are the pharmacological effects of any prescribed medication, and what potential adverse effects may accompany its use?
  • What evidence exists regarding the clinical application of the medication or therapeutic method, including clinical trials, independent professional evaluations, licensing, and other relevant documentation?
  • Has the possibility of allergic or any other adverse reactions to the prescribed medication or therapeutic method been adequately assessed?
  • Has the patient been provided with clear, accurate, and transparent information regarding the costs of treatment, including a detailed breakdown of all associated expenses?
• Compliance with restrictions on advertising:
  • Has the statutory prohibition on the advertising and promotion of healthcare services, professional medical procedures, and methods of healthcare—including traditional medicine (alternative, homeopathic, and other complementary medical practices) provided by healthcare institutions, private medical practices, or other legal entities engaged in healthcare activities through mass media or similar channels—been fully observed?

Another important indicator within this area is the possible involvement of former addicts (e.g., individuals recovering from drug addiction, gambling addiction, or similar forms of dependency) who, through participation in a particular group, found the motivation to overcome their addiction. While such experiences may appear positive, they also contain the potential for a specific form of manipulation and abuse. Organizations exhibiting cultic characteristics frequently employ highly effective psychosocial and other mechanisms of personality conditioning that can, in practice, replace physical or psychological dependence with ideological dependence. Superficially, a particular doctrine or organization appears to have liberated the individual from the grip of addiction. This, however, often generates a profound sense of gratitude and emotional attachment, creating a pattern of powerful—and sometimes lifelong—manipulation disguised as benevolence.

Within this context, the following questions should be carefully considered:

• The nature of the group or organization conducting the programme:
  • Are the organization’s legal registration and declared objectives transparent and consistent with its actual practices?
  • Are former addicts, relying solely on their personal experiences but lacking formal professional qualifications, licences, or independent oversight, involved in the rehabilitation or resocialization of new participants?
  • Are members encouraged or required to adopt a particular spiritual or religious doctrine, or to participate in religious rituals or prayer practices, as a form of therapy or treatment?
  • Are participants subjected to psychological or social pressure to accept beliefs or practices that they find objectionable? Are methods such as isolation, ridicule, emotional coercion, or any form of psychological or physical abuse employed to secure compliance?
  • Are so-called work therapies imposed that, in reality, constitute labour exploitation through demanding unpaid intellectual or physical work as a means of repaying the group?
  • Does the organization exercise control over members’ social and emotional lives, including their relationships with society, family, or friends?
  • Does the programme genuinely prepare individuals for independent life outside the group?

2. The Field of Business

Modern communication systems and contemporary marketing techniques have profoundly transformed business practices and commercial ethics. Whereas business enterprises were once oriented not only towards generating profit but also towards contributing to the welfare of society as a whole, today’s marketplace is characterized by the proliferation of ventures directly or indirectly associated with multi-level marketing (MLM) schemes and pyramid schemes. These business models are frequently designed as ventures with a limited operational lifespan, leaving devastating consequences for the financial well-being and, in many cases, the physical and psychological health of those involved.

Problems arising within the business sector have been recognized as forming part of the broader cultic milieu in the public policies of the United States, the European Union, the Russian Federation, and numerous other countries. Through unethical and, at times, unlawful marketing practices—including aggressive commercial conduct and undue influence—such enterprises recruit victims, both as consumers and as distributors. Motivated by the promise of rapid and effortless financial gain, participants frequently sacrifice substantial amounts of time, money, and personal well-being in order to purchase or market products whose quality has not been adequately verified, whose prices are unrealistically inflated, and whose distribution often occurs outside legitimate commercial channels.

The purpose of this section is therefore twofold: first, to protect prospective distributors who may be exposed to pressure to engage in unethical business practices—often under the threat of losing their employment or facing even more serious forms of coercion—and second, to protect prospective consumers who may suffer various forms of financial, physical, or psychological harm as a result of purchasing insufficiently tested products.

For the purposes of this discussion, aggressive commercial practice refers to situations in which a trader, through harassment, coercion (including physical coercion), or undue influence, impairs or threatens to impair a consumer’s freedom of choice or conduct by imposing particular products or services, thereby causing—or threatening to cause—the consumer to make an economic decision that he or she would not otherwise have made.

Under Serbian legislation, undue influence is defined as the abuse of a position of power for the purpose of exerting pressure on a consumer in a manner that substantially impairs the consumer’s ability to make a rational decision, irrespective of whether physical force is actually used or merely threatened. One of the most important criteria for identifying aggressive (direct) marketing, aggressive commercial practices, or undue influence exists where a trader knowingly exploits a consumer’s personal misfortune or difficult circumstances, with the intention of influencing the consumer’s decision regarding a particular product or service, particularly where such circumstances adversely affect the consumer’s capacity for sound judgment. This may also include isolating prospective customers from outside influences, subjecting them to prolonged and aggressive marketing presentations, encouraging the consumption of free samples, employing persuasive psychological techniques, inducing feelings of guilt for failing to respond favourably to a product or offer, and similar practices.

Before accepting employment or purchasing any products (such as cosmetics, food products, dietary supplements, books, travel packages, and similar goods or services) through direct sales, catalogue sales, or comparable forms of commercial activity, prospective participants should seek answers to the following questions:

• Protection of employees’ rights:
  • In accordance with applicable law, are employees guaranteed the right to fair remuneration, occupational safety, and protection of their life and health in the workplace?
  • Are healthcare protection, protection of personal integrity, and other statutory rights secured in cases of illness, reduced or lost working capacity, and old age?
  • Is adequate statutory financial protection provided during periods of temporary unemployment, together with entitlement to other legally prescribed forms of social protection?
• The legal status of the employer:
  • Is the employer officially registered with the competent state authority (primarily the Serbian Business Registers Agency), and for which specific business activities?
  • Are the employer’s actual business activities consistent with those for which it is officially registered?
  • Does the company operate from its officially registered address, and what is the legal status of its business premises (owned or leased)?
  • Does the employer regularly fulfill its financial obligations, including the payment of taxes, rent, royalties, and other statutory liabilities?
  • How long has the company been conducting its current business activities, how successful has it been, and is the business history of the legal entity’s owner publicly available?
  • Under what form of employment are workers engaged (fixed-term or permanent), and are taxes, social security contributions, health insurance contributions, and other statutory obligations regularly and properly paid on their behalf?
• Information concerning the products or services being marketed:
  • Do the actual characteristics of the product correspond to those stated in its official declaration or labelling?
  • Has the value (price) of the product been determined on a realistic and objectively justifiable basis?
  • Has the sale of the product or service been approved by the competent authorities of the Republic of Serbia?
  • Are customers provided with a fiscal receipt, warranty, user instructions, and other legally required documentation?
  • What experiences have previous consumers or users reported regarding the product or service?
• Criteria for identifying aggressive commercial practices and undue influence:
  • Is the consumer led to believe that he or she cannot leave the premises where the sales presentation is taking place until a contract has been concluded?
  • Are unsolicited visits made to the consumer’s home or place of business without the consumer’s prior request or consent?
  • Is the consumer repeatedly contacted against his or her expressed wishes by telephone or through other means of distance communication?
  • Is a consumer seeking to exercise rights arising from an insurance policy or product warranty required to submit documents that are not reasonably necessary for assessing the legitimacy of the claim?
  • Does the trader persistently avoid responding to consumer complaints or requests with the purpose of discouraging the consumer from exercising his or her contractual rights?
  • Does the advertising directly encourage children to purchase a product or to persuade their parents or other adults to purchase the advertised product on their behalf?
  • Is the consumer required to pay for, return, or safeguard a product that was delivered without having been requested?
  • Is the consumer explicitly informed that the trader’s employment or livelihood will be jeopardized if the consumer does not purchase a particular product or service?
  • Is the consumer led to believe that he or she has won, or will win by taking a specified action, a prize or other benefit, when in fact no such prize or benefit exists, or where obtaining the prize or benefit is conditional upon the consumer paying a sum of money or incurring other expenses?

3. The Spiritual and Religious Sphere

As noted in the introductory section, outside professional circles cultic and manipulative activities are most commonly associated with religious or spiritual groups that are described by the imprecise terms religious sects or cults. From both a historical and theological perspective, sects were indeed smaller or larger groups that separated from the parent religion from which they originated (in this context, the term derives from the Latin verb secare, meaning to cut off or to separate). For this reason, the entire phenomenon of cultic and manipulative activity is often mistakenly perceived exclusively as a religious or spiritual phenomenon. Contemporary democratic societies, however, rightly insist upon freedom of conscience and religion as one of the fundamental and inalienable human rights. Since the introduction of political pluralism, the Republic of Serbia has acceded to numerous international institutions, organizations, and forums that require their member states to ensure the unconditional and effective protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to freedom of conscience and religion. The principles enshrined in legally binding international instruments—such as the European Convention on Human Rights, which have likewise been incorporated into the Constitution of the Republic of Serbia—guarantee the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, including the freedom to change one’s religion or beliefs and the freedom, either individually or in community with others, publicly or privately, to manifest one’s religion or beliefs through worship, preaching, practice, and observance.

The freedom to manifest one’s religion or beliefs, as thus defined, may be subject only to those limitations prescribed by law that are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of public safety, the protection of public order, health, or morals, or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. These limitations have been further clarified in documents issued by respected international institutions such as the Council of Europe, which has repeatedly drawn the attention of its member states to serious abuses of the principle of religious tolerance that forms one of the foundations of contemporary multi-confessional societies. Following the emergence of grave abuses of religious freedom committed by certain new religious movements and their leaders—including conduct that endangered the lives and health of their followers and family members, as well as involvement in criminal offences such as homicide, illicit trafficking in narcotics and weapons, tax evasion, and similar crimes—the Council of Europe, together with the European Parliament and other institutions of the European Union, raised the level of public awareness and initiated systematic investigations into the activities of such groups.

Reports submitted by member states demonstrated that many organizations formally presenting themselves as religious bodies in fact engage in a much broader range of activities, establishing lobbying networks through affiliated non-governmental organizations, charitable and educational foundations, and other corporate entities in an effort to promote value systems that are frequently incompatible with the principles of a modern democratic society. Investigations conducted by parliamentary committees in several European countries concluded that some of these spiritual corporations, in essence:

• do not accept or share the fundamental values of contemporary democratic society;
• fail to respect the human rights of their own followers;
• engage in discrimination on various grounds; and
• frequently violate even their own doctrines, which typically proclaim peace, tolerance, spirituality, and social compassion.

Within certain spiritual and esoteric groups, documented cases have included organized murders and mass suicides, terrorist attacks, human trafficking, torture, the abuse and neglect of children and other vulnerable persons, extortion, embezzlement, illicit trafficking in narcotic drugs, and numerous other criminal offences and unlawful acts. Experts collectively describe these phenomena under the concept of cultic and manipulative activity, in which the adjective cultic no longer derives from the Latin verb secare—as was historically the case for religious groups separating from a parent tradition—but rather from the Latin verb sequi (“to follow”). In this sense, the term denotes the creation of unquestioning allegiance to particular individuals or ideologies through the abuse of trust and various forms of manipulation, whereby individuals are placed in a position—or exposed to the risk—of committing criminal acts, or otherwise endangering their own lives, health, well-being, or property, or those of others, through psychological coercion or other forms of undue pressure.

Because of these phenomena—which are far too numerous to be regarded as merely coincidental and which, owing to the closed nature of such organizations, are exceptionally difficult to detect and investigate—the Council of Europe, together with other international organizations, national institutions of member states, and competent civil society organizations, has developed a number of standards and criteria that, on the one hand, safeguard the fundamental right to freedom of religion and belief, while, on the other hand, directing attention to the activities of spiritual and esoteric organizations and groups and to the extent to which their practices are compatible with the principles of a liberal democratic society.

In this context, when encountering alternative spirituality—that is, a religious, spiritual, esoteric, or similar group (or an individual engaged in such activities)—it is advisable to seek answers to the following questions:

• The legal status of the individual or group conducting spiritual or religious activities:
  • Is the individual or group conducting spiritual or religious activities affiliated with one of the officially registered traditional churches or religious communities, or has an application for registration been formally submitted? (Such information is publicly available in the Register of Religious Communities, currently maintained by the Ministry of Justice.)
  • Does the organization operate under the official name and legal form for which it is registered, and from its registered address?
  • Does it engage in additional activities (such as therapy, commercial activities, humanitarian work, or similar services) for which it is not officially registered?
  • Does it conduct its financial transactions through official banking channels, or does it primarily accept cash payments?
  • Does it regularly fulfill its tax obligations and other statutory duties in accordance with applicable legislation?
  • Are there any ongoing judicial proceedings involving the individual or legal entity, and, if so, what is the subject matter of those proceedings?
• Methods of proselytization and the conduct of spiritual or religious activities:
  • Are its beliefs and teachings promoted in an intrusive or inappropriate manner, such as through persistent or aggressive attempts to contact individuals at their homes, through family members, at their workplace, or by telephone, the Internet, or other means of communication?
  • Does it seek to impose its beliefs or practices upon children, minors, persons with developmental disabilities, the elderly, persons with disabilities, or other vulnerable groups?
  • Do its rituals or ceremonies include unlawful or disturbing elements, such as threats to life, physical or psychological abuse, torture, humiliation of human beings or animals, the consumption of illegal narcotics or substances of unknown or questionable origin, sexually explicit practices, or similar conduct?
  • Does it conceal its religious activities behind offers of free foreign-language instruction, memory- or learning-enhancement techniques, personal psychosocial development programmes, concerts, seminars on macrobiotic nutrition, or other seemingly secular activities?
• Consistency between doctrine and spiritual practice:
  • Does the spiritual doctrine contain disturbing or extremist elements, such as the justification or encouragement of violence against human beings or animals, or expressions of hatred, discrimination, or contempt towards any individual, social group, or society as a whole?
  • If the doctrine promotes peace, empathy, tolerance, and mutual understanding, are the conduct of the group’s leaders and members, as well as its rituals and practices, genuinely consistent with the ethical principles and ideals that it publicly professes?
  • Even where a group presents itself as peaceful, are there any controversies involving cooperation or close associations with other organizations or individuals that advocate or engage in violence, terrorism, extremism, radicalization, or similar activities?
  • What is the group’s overall doctrinal and practical attitude towards the state, the rule of law, the community, the family, human rights and fundamental freedoms, and the core values of a democratic society?
• Attitude towards traditional religions, other religious communities, and society:
  • Does the group promote the belief that it alone possesses the truth or the only correct interpretation of a particular religious doctrine, revelation, or tradition?
  • Are there any observable forms of discrimination against, or denigration of, other religious communities or social groups?
  • Does the group initially emphasize, in a deceptive or manipulative manner, the idea of religious relativism—that all religious doctrines, revelations, or traditions are essentially identical—while encouraging individuals to maintain their original religious affiliation alongside the new system of beliefs, only for the fundamental differences, initially concealed, to be disclosed gradually over time?
  • Are the rules established by the group or its leader presented as superior to, or taking precedence over, the laws of the state, the legal order, the prevailing social value system, or public morality?
• Attitude towards the family (particularly children and minors), health, education, and the demands placed upon followers:
  • Are the teachings or interests of the group or its leader, in any manner or form, placed above the social, family, or professional responsibilities of its followers?
  • Are followers subjected to direct or indirect pressure to recruit new members from among their family members, relatives, friends, or acquaintances?
  • Are followers expected to make significant changes to their lifestyle or value system, perform unpaid labor as a form of spiritual practice, provide disproportionately large financial or material donations, or make use of alternative and scientifically unsubstantiated healing methods, products, or similar practices?
  • Does the group encourage or require the education of children outside the compulsory state educational system established by law?
  • Are parents who belong to the group encouraged to cultivate relationships with their children based upon love, trust, and mutual respect, while guiding them to embrace and appreciate the emotional, ethical, and national values that constitute the identity of their family and society?
  • Are there indications that a parent or parents (or a legal guardian or guardians), with the encouragement, support, or complicity of the group or its leader, abuse or neglect children by:
    • physically, sexually, or emotionally abusing the child;
    • exploiting the child by compelling him or her to perform excessive work, or work that endangers the child’s moral development, health, or education, or work prohibited by law;
    • encouraging the child to commit criminal offences;
    • fostering harmful habits or destructive patterns of behavior in the child;
    • abandoning or neglecting the child in a manner that impedes his or her physical or psychological development;
    • failing altogether to provide proper care for a child with whom they live;
    • failing to provide financial support for the child, refusing to maintain personal contact with a child who does not reside with them, or preventing the child from maintaining a relationship with the other parent with whom the child does not live.

• if they intentionally and without justification fail to create the conditions necessary for living together with a child who has been placed in a social welfare institution providing residential care;
  • if they otherwise grossly neglect the duties and responsibilities arising from parental rights.
• The group’s hierarchy—the profile of its leader and followers:
  • Is the internal structure of the group democratic, and are members genuinely free to express their opinions and views without fear of reprisal, even when those opinions differ from the teachings of the group or its leader?
  • Do the leader, the governing body of the group, or senior members enjoy disproportionate privileges, impose improper or unreasonable demands upon members, or subject them to any form of humiliation, discrimination, or degrading treatment?
  • Are the biography, conduct, and publicly expressed views of the leader, the governing body, and senior members consistent with the law, accepted moral standards, and the teachings that the group itself professes?

4. Education and Communication: The Challenges of Cyberspace

The present stage of development of communication technologies provides access to knowledge and human experience on a scale unprecedented in history. Entire libraries of information are now readily available to anyone with Internet access. At the same time, however, the immense opportunities created by these technologies have been accompanied by equally significant risks, particularly through the widespread application of artificial intelligence (AI). Like any other tool, AI possesses enormous potential both to improve the quality of human life and to increase existing threats and vulnerabilities. Consequently, cyberspace has become comparable to an extensive hunting ground, exploited by a wide variety of predators who seek to attract victims by offering diverse services, knowledge, experiences, or opportunities.

Organizations and individuals engaged in cultic and manipulative activities have adapted rapidly to these new circumstances and make extensive use of contemporary marketing and communication technologies, particularly social media platforms, online dating services, messaging applications, and group communication channels. Children and young people are especially vulnerable to serious risks through applications that facilitate direct audio and video communication, such as Snapchat and similar platforms, where various forms of promisingCertain AI-based services already provide sophisticated deepfake technologies and related tools capable of creating entirely fictitious online identities—including fabricated relatives, spouses, or friends of the intended victim—thereby creating unprecedented opportunities for manipulation and abuse. Naturally, these technological capabilities are equally available to those engaged in cultic and manipulative influence.

Within cyberspace, explicitly religious or spiritual content is less frequently presented at the outset. Instead, users are commonly attracted through appealing offers of intellectual, physical,  or personal development programmes, courses promising increased self-confidence or the acquisition of supposedly exotic skills, various forms of yoga, meditation, sungazing, and other relaxation techniques, all of which are typically presented as being entirely free of any spiritual or religious dimension. As in every other sphere in which cultic and manipulative activities have been identified, the underlying objective remains the same: to gain the trust of participants enrolled in courses of self-discovery, self-development, or self-improvement, frequently through the use of scientifically unverified techniques whose perceived effectiveness is, in many cases, attributable primarily to the placebo effect.

The consequences of practicing such techniques often manifest themselves in different ways among participants. During the initial stages of engaging in methods of self-discovery and personal development, most individuals perceive their experiences as positive. Over time, however, depending on the intensity and nature of the techniques employed, various difficulties frequently emerge, affecting participants’ health, family relationships, professional responsibilities, and financial circumstances. Many programmes that begin as short, free of charge, or relatively inexpensive gradually become increasingly demanding, time-consuming, and costly. Of particular concern is the possibility that individuals may, through the Internet or other forms of remote communication, be introduced to potentially harmful practices that pose serious risks to their life or health, without ever meeting a member or leader of the organization in person. Contemporary communication technologies make it possible for an individual simultaneously to become both an agent and a victim of cultic and manipulative activity.

For this reason, when evaluating the vast array of courses and programmes marketed under labels such as self-discovery, self-development, self-improvement, and similar concepts, it is advisable to seek clear answers to the following questions:

• The legal status, experience, and professional qualifications of the instructor or trainer:
  • Is the educational programme conducted by an individual, or within a legal entity, that is duly registered, authorized, and professionally qualified in the field in which the training is provided (e.g., psychology, psychotherapy, therapy and physiotherapy, yoga, meditation, or related disciplines)?
  • How long has the individual or organization been engaged in the proposed activity, and what domestic and international licences, certifications, or professional references does it possess?
• The objective credibility of the proposed programme:
  • Does the programme promise results that are impossible or highly improbable to achieve, such as increased intelligence, life extension, magical or supernatural powers, or similar extraordinary outcomes?
  • Is it realistically plausible that the advertised objectives can be achieved within the stated timeframe—for example, that one- or three-day seminars or workshops can provide all the knowledge and practical experience necessary for accelerated learning, overcoming stress or fears, past-life regression therapy, psychotherapy, hypnosis, yoga, meditation, or comparable disciplines?
  • Can the stated objectives genuinely be achieved without prior education, training, or knowledge in the relevant scientific or professional fields?
• The actual costs, scope of instruction, and additional requirements:
  • Are participants informed clearly and in advance of the actual costs of the programme and of all financial obligations towards the organizers?
  • Do additional, previously undisclosed expenses arise after the programme has begun?
  • Are participants subsequently offered the opportunity to repay or work off debts (i.e., previously undisclosed costs) incurred through participation in the programme?
  • Are participants placed in an unequal or humiliating position because they lack the financial resources or the alleged intellectual capacity to complete the course successfully?
  • During extended periods of training, isolation, or unanticipated extensions of programme activities, are participants permitted to maintain contact with members of their families?
• The time, physical, psychological, and ethical demands imposed upon participants:
  • Before the programme begins, are participants provided with a clear schedule specifying the duration, structure, and scope of all planned activities?
  • During the course of the programme, are there substantial departures from the announced schedule?
  • Do the instructor’s expectations significantly exceed the participants’ physical, psychological, or intellectual capacities, and what are the consequences when participants fail to meet those expectations?
  • Are participants required to engage in conduct that conflicts with their own moral convictions or system of values, and what consequences follow if they refuse to make such ethical compromises?
  • Is the personal integrity and privacy of participants adequately protected, or are they subjected to surveillance, recording, voluntary or involuntary isolation, group pressure, labour or other forms of exploitation, or discrimination?
  • Have participants experienced adverse health-related, psychological, or social consequences as a result of attending the programme, such as deterioration of physical or mental health, increased aggression or apathy, marital breakdown, loss of employment, or similar outcomes?
• Positive and negative experiences of previous participants:
  • Is the prospective participant given the opportunity, prior to enrolling, to hear about the experiences of someone—preferably a trusted acquaintance—who has previously attended or completed the same workshop or programme?
• The use of Internet technologies and activities in cyberspace:
  • Are the organizers of the programme officially registered to carry out the activities they offer, and if so, for how long have they been registered?
  • Are they registered in the Republic of Serbia or in another country, and where are the activities physically conducted?
  • Is the privacy of participants adequately protected? Are they required to disclose sensitive personal information, and if so, what information is requested and for what purpose (e.g., names, residential addresses, bank account numbers, telephone numbers, e-mail addresses, social media profile information, account credentials, or similar data)?
  • Are minors permitted to participate in the activities, and on what legal or organizational basis?
  • What are the experiences of previous or current participants?
  • Is it possible to verify the qualifications, professional references, and expertise of those conducting the activities and in what way?
  • How do the organizers respond to questions, requests to verify their qualifications, criticism, comments, suggestions, or concerns raised by participants?
  • Do the organizers exert any form of pressure upon participants, make inappropriate proposals, ask intrusive or sensitive questions, or otherwise violate the dignity, personal integrity, or privacy of those using their services?

5. The Sphere of Social and Humanitarian Activities

International experience demonstrates that even the field of non-profit social and humanitarian work is not immune to abuse. By the end of the twentieth century, organizations exhibiting cultic characteristics had adapted their activities to the emerging geopolitical realities. The collapse of the Berlin Wall opened the societies of the former communist states to a wide range of new ideas and ideological movements. This historical transformation was also exploited by numerous actors seeking to exercise manipulative influence, primarily with the aim of acquiring greater social, political, and economic power.

Some organizations that had originated during the 1960s and 1970s as relatively small groups of followers gathered around particular Indian gurus (spiritual teachers) or other religious leaders had, by the 1990s, developed into multinational corporations with activities extending into virtually every sphere of public life. What had initially begun as explicitly spiritual movements gradually expanded into the fields of therapy, business, education, and social activism.

Nevertheless, experience has shown that the establishment of humanitarian foundations and non-governmental organizations dedicated to the protection of human rights has, in certain cases, served merely as a façade for tax evasion and as a convenient platform for discrediting anyone who raises legitimate questions concerning the activities of organizations exhibiting cultic characteristics. Such organizations have also succeeded in securing considerable support within academic and university circles. A significant number of scholars from various disciplines—particularly sociology—have been engaged by organizations of this kind in order to provide their activities with a measure of academic legitimacy. These spiritual corporations openly and generously finance individual scholars, non-governmental organizations, academic research projects, scientific journals, and professional publications with the aim of obtaining scholarly credibility for their activities. Those experts who actively relativize the phenomenon of cultic and manipulative activity while dismissing or discrediting its critics and the testimonies of its victims are commonly referred to as the cult lobby.

Despite the vigorous campaigns conducted by such experts, many European states have declined to recognize these organizations as religious communities or to grant them the tax privileges ordinarily associated with such status, following investigations that revealed numerous instances of abuse. In several recommendations, the Council of Europe has specifically warned its member states about these forms of misuse and has emphasized, among its principal recommendations, the need for transparent governance and financial accountability within religious organizations, particularly where they establish unofficial or concealed affiliated entities within the civil sector. A well-known example is the long-standing dispute between the Church of Scientology and the United States Internal Revenue Service (IRS), which unsuccessfully attempted to revoke the organization’s status as a religious entity and the corresponding tax exemptions. This remains one of the rare instances in which the IRS was ultimately unsuccessful, illustrating the considerable political and financial influence that some of these organizations have acquired. Every church or religious community unquestionably has the right to engage in humanitarian work, to express views on social issues, and to cooperate with other organizations. However, where such organizations secretly establish their own affiliated entities within the civil sector, it is evident that they do so in a manner inconsistent with the principles of a democratic society, deliberately exploiting its institutional openness and freedoms for their own benefit.

Accordingly, when engaging with a humanitarian or non-governmental organization, it is equally important to seek answers to the following questions:

• The legal status and reputation of the organization:
  • Is the organization properly and transparently registered with the competent public authorities for the activities it carries out?
  • Does it enjoy a positive national or international reputation in the field in which it operates?
  • Has the organization changed its name or legal form of registration, and if so, for what reasons?
  • Are its governing bodies elected in accordance with democratic principles?
  • Are the organization’s financial operations lawful, transparent, and managed in an appropriate and accountable manner?
• The reputation and professional qualifications of its leadership and members:
  • Do the organization’s leaders possess the public credibility, and personal integrity appropriate to the responsibilities they perform?
  • Are there members whose conduct or public reputation is inconsistent with the organization’s stated objectives?
  • Is the educational background of the organization’s leadership appropriate to the activities it conducts?
  • Are the biographies of the organization’s leaders accurate, publicly available, and transparent?
  • Do the leaders receive remuneration for their activities, and if so, are the amounts transparent and proportionate?
  • Are any members of the leadership involved in actual or potential conflicts of interest, whether direct or indirect, in relation to the organization’s activities?
• The nature of its activities and programmess:
  • Are the organization’s activities genuinely consistent with its publicly declared objectives?
  • Does its socially beneficial work produce tangible public benefit, or does it primarily serve as a façade for other activities?
  • Does the organization work with vulnerable groups, such as children, older persons, individuals with illnesses or disabilities, persons with developmental disabilities, members of national or other minorities?
  • Do its members exploit their work with vulnerable individuals in order to pursue objectives other than those officially declared by the organization?
  • Are there observable indications of abuse of trust, inconsistency between declared principles and actual conduct, unethical behaviour, or similar irregularities?
• Relationships with other organizations and individuals:
  • Is the organization a formal or informal branch of another organization, group, or federation, and is this affiliation publicly disclosed in a clear and transparent manner?
  • Are there any overt or concealed connections with organizations pursuing different purposes or aims?
  • Are there non-transparent forms of influence exercised by individuals who are not formally affiliated with the organization?
  • Do the organization’s members distribute materials produced by, or participate in the activities of, other organizations with which no transparent cooperation exists?
• The experiences of former members and public controversies:
  • Is it possible to become acquainted with the experiences of former members of the organization and to understand the reasons for their departure?
  • Are there any ongoing judicial proceedings involving the organization, members of its leadership, or affiliated organizations?
  • Have serious allegations of abuse or other public controversies concerning the organization’s activities been raised, and how do its members respond to such allegations?

6. Concluding Remarks

The questions presented within these five thematic areas represent only a selection of the many issues that should be considered before accepting any offer whose origin, background, or credibility has not been adequately examined. This text is intended to remain a living document and will undoubtedly be updated in accordance with developments in the complex field of cultic and manipulative activity, including legislative changes, the emergence of new representative cases, technological advances, and other relevant developments.

If the answers to any of these questions give rise to reasonable concern, this should not automatically be interpreted as evidence of malicious intent on the part of a particular individual or organization. It should, however, encourage a greater degree of caution and critical reflection. Conversely, it is not necessary for every question to be answered before concluding that a particular situation may involve elements of cultic and manipulative activity. Rather, these questions should be understood primarily as a form of compass—practical points of orientation designed to facilitate a more prudent, informed, and discerning approach to unfamiliar or insufficiently understood areas of contemporary life. It would be highly beneficial for every reader to supplement this framework by formulating additional questions relevant to each of these five potentially controversial fields.

Finally, in the appendix that follows, we shall propose a series of informal answers to some of the questions most frequently raised by the general public concerning cultic and manipulative activity. These questions relate primarily to the competences of the Ministry of the Interior and to matters falling within the sphere of public security.

Andrej Protić
Excerpt from the dissertation

Cover photograph: Pixabay